DOI: https://doi.org/10.9767/jcerp.20715

Lignite-Derived Activated Carbon: A Superior, Low-Cost Alternative to Coconut-Shell GAC for Tributyl Phosphate (TBP) Adsorption from Wastewater

1Faculty of Energy Science, Kim II Sung University, Pyongyang 999093, North Korea

2Analytical Measurement Laboratory, Kim Il Sung University, Pyongyang 999093, North Korea

Received: 19 Apr 2026; Revised: 28 Apr 2026; Accepted: 30 Apr 2026; Available online: 28 Jun 2026; Published: 26 Dec 2026.
Editor(s): Istadi Istadi
Open Access Copyright (c) 2026 by Authors, Published by Universitas Diponegoro and BCREC Publishing Group
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
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Abstract

This study examined the use of local lignite-based and walnut shell-based GACs as potential low-cost alternatives to the imported coconut shell-based GACs for the removal of TBP from wastewaters in Zr alloy production. The lignite-based GAC steam activated showed that the surface groups consisted of –OH, C=C, and C–O–C and that it had a predominantly mesoporous structure (65% mesopores and 20% micropores). At a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:100 and an initial concentration of 400 mg/L of TBP, the GAC derived from lignite adsorbed 38.7 mg/g with an efficiency of 96.2%. This result was comparable to the coconut shell GAC, which adsorbed 39.8 mg/g with an efficiency of 99.5%. The walnut shell GAC had a slightly higher adsorption capacity than the other two GACs, with 39.7 mg/g and an efficiency of 99.6%. In all cases, equilibrium was reached in 120 min, while the literature usually reports 150–180 min. This may be because the intraparticle diffusion is accelerated when the mesopore content is high; in this GAC, the mesopores accounted for 65% of the volume. This kinetic advantage distinguishes domestically produced GACs from predominantly microporous coconut-shell GAC. Economically, lignite-derived GAC showed superior cost-effectiveness, with a production cost less than one-fifth that of imported coconut-shell GAC. The economic effectiveness index clearly favoured domestically produced GACs. Lignite-derived GAC, originally used almost exclusively for gas purification, was successfully validated for liquid-phase TBP removal, an application with no prior example. Thus, domestically produced lignite-derived GAC is an effective, low-cost alternative to imported coconut-shell GAC for TBP removal from Zr alloy production wastewater. Copyright © 2026 by Authors, Published by Universitas Diponegoro and BCREC Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).

Keywords: TBP (tributyl phosphate), lignite; GAC (granular activated carbon); adsorption amount; equilibration time; adsorption rate

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Section: Original Research Articles
Language : EN
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