DOI: https://doi.org/10.9767/bcrec.20823

Potential Application of Plant-Mediated Zirconia by Hydrothermal Method for Microwave-Assisted Bio-Jet Fuel Production

1Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

2Research Collaboration Center for Nyamplung Biofuel, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) and Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

3Research Center for Hydrodynamics Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), The B. J. Habibie Science and Technology Area, South Tangerang, Banten 15314, Indonesia

4 Research Center for Catalysis, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), The B. J. Habibie Science and Technology Area, South Tangerang, Banten 15314, Indonesia

5 Center for Environmental Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

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Received: 21 Aug 2026; Revised: 24 Sep 2026; Accepted: 24 Sep 2026; Available online: 29 Sep 2026; Published: 26 Dec 2026.
Editor(s): Istadi Istadi
Open Access Copyright (c) 2026 by Authors, Published by BCREC Publishing Group
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
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Abstract

Waste and biomass valorization provide promising routes for biofuel production while addressing environmental challenges associated with conventional feedstocks and energy-intensive processing. In this study, plant-mediated zirconia (ZrO₂) was hydrothermally prepared using Sapindus rarak extract (SPE) and evaluated as a catalyst for microwave-assisted hydroprocessing of used cooking oil (UCO) and Calophyllum inophyllum L. oil (CIO). Phenolic compounds and saponins were the predominant constituents of SPE, while the prepared ZrO₂ exhibited a predominantly tetragonal crystalline structure, nanoscale particles, and mesoporous characteristics associated with interparticle voids. Under microwave irradiation at 550 °C, with an H₂ flow rate of 20 mL min⁻¹, a catalyst-to-oil mass ratio of 1:100 (w/w), and a reaction time of 30 min, the prepared ZrO₂ promoted the formation of C₈–C₁₆ hydrocarbons with a higher paraffin fraction compared with commercial monoclinic ZrO₂ and catalyst-free treatment. Bio-jet fuel selectivity and yield reached 56.03% and 19.51 wt% for UCO and 48.90% and 15.72 wt% for CIO, respectively. Three consecutive reuse cycles with UCO resulted in a gradual decline in bio-jet fuel yield, accompanied by changes in product distribution and the retention of organic species on the catalyst. Altogether, these findings indicate the potential of plant-mediated ZrO₂ for microwave-assisted hydroprocessing of waste-derived and non-edible oils, while further catalyst development is needed to improve catalytic performance and product quality. Copyright © 2026 by Authors, Published by BCREC Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0).

Keywords: Biofuel production; hydrothermal preparation; microwave-assisted catalysis; nanomaterial; zirconia
Funding: Center for Environmental Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada under contract 1118/UN1/PSLH/PT.01.10/2026

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Section: Original Research Articles
Language : EN
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